As short-haul destinations in the Mediterranean have begun the process of saturation, Western Europeans are beginning to flock to the tropical packaged paradise destinations of Africa, Asia and the Pacific, aided by the increasingly concentrated and integrated mass tourism industry, transnational corporations such as Thomson and Airtours in the UK. Between 1980 and 1992, tourism receipts in developing countries increased from 3.0% to 12.5%, an average of 8.4%. Whilst environmental and social activists in those countries are trying to fight against the hedonistic sun, sand and sea mentality of beach mass tourism in order to retain some ecological balance and cultural integrity, ravers and 'clubbers' from Britain state that "the world is our oyster. There are a million beautiful beaches. It's a free world and it's our money to spend where we like".

Is the world an oyster?

At the same time people in Goa (India) are saying: "It is our history, our culture, our land and our very people that are being sold on the stock exchanges and markets of the globe." (Pro. Sergio Carvalho)

In line with the increasing international importance of the service sector, replacing manufacturing and agriculture, combined with falling prices of commodities, tourism is beginning to replace agriculture as one of the main economic sectors in many developing countries, becoming in some cases a 'mono-crop'.

In 1996, the UK non-governmental organisation Tourism Concern, which campaigns for just and fairly traded tourism, published a book called 'Trading Places - Tourism as Trade'. It outlined the implications of tourism as a trade export item in Southern economies, and the effects of international trade agreements, such as the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), which include tourism, in the context of Debt and Structural Adjustment Programmes. Case studies of several countries in the South demonstrated that, far from bringing economic benefits, tourism in developing countries struggling with international debt repayments, tended to exacerbate poverty and socio-cultural and environmental degradation, particularly among the least advantaged sections of local 'host' communities.

The process of globalisation and liberalisation, legalised within the framework of the GATS, administered by the World Trade Organisation, has served to continue to undermine the control of small-scale, local producers and service providers over the well-being of their economies. Powerful tourism corporations from the industrialised countries, controlling the tourism markets, now have the licence to take over domestic tourism businesses in destinations that are struggling to compete with such power.

For many of these countries tourism is a new industry, they rely almost entirely on foreign investment for the tourism infrastructure due to poverty and indebtedness. Generous investment incentives to foreign companies tend to drain the economy and local communities of their scarce resources, such as water and electricity. Imports that are more expensive than the price received for exports are increased due to the different tastes of foreign tourists, which cannot be catered for by local produce. All this means that in many developing countries the costs of introducing tourism as an industry can sometimes be higher than the benefits, particularly for local communities who are socially and economically disadvantaged.

Community action in destinations

As a response to such increasing economic inequalities, communities are beginning to organise themselves. There are many small-scale tourism initiatives around the world where people in villages or indigenous communities are trying to join the tourism business to make a modest living with scarce resources, sometimes not only out of economic need, but to counter discrimination and abuse of their cultures by a local or foreign tourist industry.

Three examples are worth mentioning here:

In The Gambia, small-scale tourism entrepreneurs have organised themselves into an association (ASSET) that acts as a support group providing training, marketing and funding for small-scale tourism enterprises. And public pressure has recently persuaded the government to ban foreign tourism investment in the form of 'All-inclusive', where tourists pay one price which includes everything from accommodation to drinks to entertainment. This means that local service providers gain nothing from their business.

In Namibia, the Namibia Community Based Tourism association (NACOBTA) was created in 1995 to increase benefits from tourism in the black communities impoverished through the effects of the now defunct apartheid system. Through training, business advice, marketing and assistance with product development, NACOBTA is mandated by the government to achieve social and economic empowerment for the communities involved. One of the tourism operations it oversees is a wildlife safari lodge, a tented camp in a remote part of north-west Namibia. It is run as a joint venture between the tour operator and the community on a revenue sharing basis, providing invaluable benefits to the farming communities in the form of employment, training and collective income.

In South Africa, the Fair Trade in Tourism Initiative has created a network of small entrepreneurs and community organisations, which have produced a number of Fair Trade criteria for tourism such as Fair Share, Democracy, Respect, Reliability, Transparency/Accountability, and Sustainability.

There are many more initiatives of this kind around the world¹, either already in existence or starting up.

These may seem small drops in the ocean of transnationalised business at present but they represent a growing trend, which could determine the face of international tourism in the 21^st century. In a destination where the community has organised itself into a strong and knowledgeable force for social and economic empowerment, transnational corporations, domestic or foreign, and national governments may think twice whether they will displace people, or take away their land and resources for tourism development. Communities and small enterprises must be involved as equal stakeholders in the tourism development process. They must gain access to land rights, information, technology and income generation. Communities must also be given the chance to say 'no' to tourism development in favour of other sustainable, economic options more appropriate to their circumstances.

Developing and implementing Fair Trade in Tourism policies has to be done in collaboration with stakeholders in the South to ensure a southern perspective in all aspects of the trading operation. The meaning of 'fair' in the context of tourism in developing countries has to be defined by southern communities who may up to now have been marginalized. Research and practices in the South, like the ones in The Gambia and Namibia, need to inform and influence northern tourism practices and partnerships with the South. Although Fair Trade currently embraces a North-South partnership, the complexity of the tourism markets, tourism distribution channels and supply chains requires also a close examination of equality issues in trade practices among stakeholders in Southern destinations and South-South co-operation.

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The International Network on Fair Trade in Tourism The International Network on Fair Trade in Tourism was set up in March 1999 by Tourism Concern with funding from the European Commission and the UK Government Department for International Development. It presents an opportunity to link up initiatives all over the world which are trying to implement ethical and fair trade tourism practices and to provide a forum for exchange of ideas and experiences. It is hoped that this could influence policies made at international as well as at national and local levels. The Network organises annual international meetings and has so far co-ordinated several fora with different stakeholders such as community representatives, industry, NGOs and researchers/consultants. At an international Forum held in June 1999 to launch the Tourism Concern International Network on Fair Trade in Tourism, four different levels were identified at which Fair Trade in Tourism needs to be implemented: Corporate Social and Environmental Accountability, Local Community Support, Consumer Awareness, International Agreements. Another should be added: national government policy and planning. A definition, principles and criteria on Fair Trade in Tourism have been drafted, consulted on and accepted as a working document by the most recent international annual forum in November 2000. This Forum, the second Annual International Forum, took place in London over the course of three days with over 50 participants from all over the world, primarily tour operators and community-based organisations. Its focus was the role of the tourism industry in the practical implementation of Fair Trade in Tourism. It provided an excellent opportunity for networking, sharing of experiences and ideas and for discussing strategies for future action. More information on the International Network on Fair Trade in Tourism can be obtained from the Tourism Concern Website at www.tourismconcern.org.uk or from Angela Kalisch at AKfairtour@compuserve.com

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